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To learn more about the map elements, please download the "Pan-European strategy for genetic conservation of forest trees"
This distribution map has been developed by the European Commission Joint Research Centre (partly based on the EUFORGEN map) and released under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC-BY 4.0)
Caudullo, Giovanni; Welk, Erik; San-Miguel-Ayanz, Jesús (2017). Chorological maps and data for the main European woody species. figshare. Collection. https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.c.2918528
The following experts have contributed to the development of the EUFORGEN distribution maps:
Fazia Krouchi (Algeria), Hasmik Ghalachyan (Armenia), Thomas Geburek (Austria), Berthold Heinze (Austria), Rudi Litschauer (Austria), Rudolf Litschauer (Austria), Michael Mengl (Austria), Ferdinand Müller (Austria), Franz Starlinger (Austria), Valida Ali-zade (Azerbaijan), Vahid Djalal Hajiyev (Azerbaijan), Karen Cox (Belgium), Bart De Cuyper (Belgium), Olivier Desteucq (Belgium), Patrick Mertens (Belgium), Jos Van Slycken (Belgium), An Vanden Broeck (Belgium), Kristine Vander Mijnsbrugge (Belgium), Dalibor Ballian (Bosnia and Herzegovina), Alexander H. Alexandrov (Bulgaria), Alexander Delkov (Bulgaria), Ivanova Denitsa Pandeva (Bulgaria), Peter Zhelev Stoyanov (Bulgaria), Joso Gracan (Croatia), Marilena Idzojtic (Croatia), Mladen Ivankovic (Croatia), Željka Ivanović (Croatia), Davorin Kajba (Croatia), Hrvoje Marjanovic (Croatia), Sanja Peric (Croatia), Andreas Christou (Cyprus), Xenophon Hadjikyriacou (Cyprus), Václav Buriánek (Czech Republic), Jan Chládek (Czech Republic), Josef Frýdl (Czech Republic), Petr Novotný (Czech Republic), Martin Slovacek (Czech Republic), Zdenek Špišek (Czech Republic), Karel Vancura (Czech Republic), Ulrik Bräuner (Denmark), Bjerne Ditlevsen (Denmark), Jon Kehlet Hansen (Denmark), Jan Svejgaard Jensen (Denmark), Kalev Jðgiste (Estonia), Tiit Maaten (Estonia), Raul Pihu (Estonia), Ülo Tamm (Estonia), Arvo Tullus (Estonia), Aivo Vares (Estonia), Teijo Nikkanen (Finland), Sanna Paanukoski (Finland), Mari Rusanen (Finland), Pekka Vakkari (Finland), Leena Yrjänä (Finland), Daniel Cambon (France), Eric Collin (France), Alexis Ducousso (France), Bruno Fady (France), François Lefèvre (France), Brigitte Musch (France), Sylvie Oddou-Muratorio (France), Luc E. Pâques (France), Julien Saudubray (France), Marc Villar (France), Vlatko Andonovski (FYR Macedonia), Dragi Pop-Stojanov (FYR Macedonia), Merab Machavariani (Georgia), Irina Tvauri (Georgia), Alexander Urushadze (Georgia), Bernd Degen (Germany), Jochen Kleinschmit (Germany), Armin König (Germany), Armin König (Germany), Volker Schneck (Germany), Richard Stephan (Germany), H. H. Kausch-Blecken Von Schmeling (Germany), Georg von Wühlisch (Germany), Iris Wagner (Germany), Heino Wolf (Germany), Paraskevi Alizoti (Greece), Filippos Aravanopoulos (Greece), Andreas Drouzas (Greece), Despina Paitaridou (Greece), Aristotelis C. 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Pridnya (Russian Federation), Andrey Prokazin (Russian Federation), Srdjan Bojovic (Serbia) , Vasilije Isajev (Serbia), Saša Orlovic (Serbia), Rudolf Bruchánik (Slovakia), Roman Longauer (Slovakia), Ladislav Paule (Slovakia), Gregor Bozič (Slovenia), Robert Brus (Slovenia), Katarina Celič (Slovenia), Hojka Kraigher (Slovenia), Andrej Verlič (Slovenia), Marjana Westergren (Slovenia), Ricardo Alía (Spain), Josefa Fernández-López (Spain), Luis Gil Sanchez (Spain), Pablo Gonzalez Goicoechea (Spain), Santiago C. 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Canary Island pine has high genetic differentiation between populations, despite high within-population diversity typical of many pine species (Schiller et al., 1999; Navascués and Emerson, 2007). Around 90.9% of total genetic variation occurs within populations, while only 9.1% occurs between populations (Schiller et al., 1999). A deficiency of heterozygotes has been noted, suggesting some inbreeding or population structure (Schiller et al., 1999).
Significant genetic differentiation occurs between natural stands and planted forests, as well as between natural populations across islands (Navascués and Emerson, 2007; Navascués, Vendramin, and Emerson, 2008;). Marginal populations show unique genetic characteristics, highlighting the importance of their conservation (Navascués and Emerson, 2007). Although some stands show evidence of bottlenecks, overall, Canary Island pine maintains genetic diversity comparable to other pines, with differentiation shaped more by island geography and fragmentation than by altitude or ecological gradients (Schiller et al., 1999; Navascués, Vendramin, and Emerson, 2008).
Canary Island pine has a distinct genetic structure in the Canary Islands, with each island showing a unique genetic composition influenced by local geoclimatic conditions (Schiller et al., 1999). The species’ restricted natural distribution, covering approximately 60 000 ha across five of the seven islands, contributes to the differentiation between populations (Schiller et al., 1999).
While overall genetic diversity among island groups is low, slight decreases in genetic variation have been observed in isolated populations, reflecting barriers to gene flow between islands (Schiller et al., 1999). Within islands, however, altitudinal variation has little effect on genetic differentiation, and no significant correlation has been found between genetic distances and elevation gradients (Navascués, 2005).
Canary Island pine has high gene flow; it is wind-pollinated and has an outcrossing reproductive system, typical of pine species (Navascués and Emerson, 2007; Navascués, Vendramin, and Emerson, 2008). Pollen is dispersed across long distances, contributing to extensive genetic exchange between populations. Seeds are also wind-dispersed but can also move downslope via gravity or occasional animal activity.
Despite this high dispersal potential, geographic isolation between islands and rugged terrain can limit pollen and seed flow, resulting in some local genetic differentiation even between nearby sites (Navascués, 2005; Navascués, Vendramin, and Emerson, 2008). Environmental gradients across elevations, characterized by sharp differences in temperature, moisture, and solar radiation, can create asynchronous flowering times, acting as partial barriers to gene flow (Navascués, Vendramin, and Emerson, 2008).
The bibliographic review was conducted by James Chaplin of the EUFORGEN Secretariat in August 2025.
Over the last five centuries, Canary Island pine forests have been heavily reduced (Navascués, 2005). This led to fragmentation and population decline across the Canary Islands. Since the 1940s, large-scale reforestation programmes have aimed to restore these forests, creating a mosaic of natural and artificial stands (Navascués and Emerson, 2007). Many reforested areas were planted from a limited number of source trees, resulting in lower haplotype diversity compared with natural populations (Navascués and Emerson, 2007). However, these plantations show little overall genetic differentiation from nearby natural stands, thanks to high pollen-mediated gene flow that introduces alleles from adjacent forests (Navascués, 2005; Navascués, Vendramin, and Emerson, 2008).
Natural regeneration within reforested stands shows increasing genetic diversity over time, reflecting genetic enrichment from nearby natural populations (Navascués and Emerson, 2007). This suggests that, despite initial founder effects, high connectivity and gene flow are helping to restore genetic variability and resilience in reforested populations.
The bibliographic review was conducted by James Chaplin of the EUFORGEN Secretariat in August 2025.
Canary Island pine has suffered a drastic reduction in distribution, from covering about 25% of the Canary Islands to only 12% today, due to centuries of overexploitation for timber and tar (Navascués and Emerson, 2007). This reduction, and restricted range of the species, has led to a decrease in effective population size and low overall genetic diversity (Schiller et al., 1999).
Reforestation using seedlings from a limited number of parental trees or of uncontrolled origin risks creating stands poorly adapted to local environmental conditions (Navascués and Emerson, 2007). Artificial regeneration can further reduce genetic diversity through unplanned selection and genetic drift. Planted stands located far from natural forests may remain genetically isolated, limiting gene flow and adaptive capacity (Navascués and Emerson, 2007). Additionally, volcanic activity and associated disturbances, along with the expansion of the pine weevil Brachyderes rugatus, may further affect regeneration and population structure (Navascués, 2005).
Conservation and management strategies for Canary Island pine must prioritize genetic monitoring and the use of locally adapted seed sources (Navascués, 2005). When establishing new plantations, seed distribution zones should reflect island-specific genetic and geoclimatic variation to preserve local adaptations (Schiller et al., 1999).
High pollen- and seed-mediated gene flow between natural and planted stands can help restore genetic diversity, particularly when reforestation occurs near large, healthy forests (Navascués and Emerson, 2007). Future management should integrate adaptive conservation planning, ensuring both natural and reforested populations maintain sufficient genetic variability to respond to environmental change and disturbance (Navascués, 2005; Navascués and Emerson, 2007).
The bibliographic review was conducted by James Chaplin of the EUFORGEN Secretariat in August 2024.
Further reading
Gómez, A., González-Martínez, S.C., Collada, C., Climent, J., and Gil, L. 2003. Complex population genetic structure in the endemic Canary Island pine revealed using chloroplast microsatellite markers. Theoretical and Applied Genetics, 107: 1123–1131. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00122-003-1320-2
López de Heredia, U., López, R., Collada, C., Emerson, B.C., and Gil, L. 2014. Signatures of volcanism and aridity in the evolution of an insular pine (Pinus canariensis Chr. Sm. Ex DC in Buch). Heredity, 113: 240–249. https://doi.org/10.1038/hdy.2014.22
References
Navascués, M. 2005. Genetic diversity of the endemic canary island pine tree, Pinus canariensis. PhD thesis. Norwich, UN, University of East Anglia. https://theses.hal.science/tel-00250082
Navascués, M. and Emerson, B.C. 2007. Natural recovery of genetic diversity by gene flow in reforested areas of the endemic Canary Island pine, Pinus canariensis. Forest Ecology and Management, 244(1–3): 122–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2007.04.009
Navascués, M., Vendramin, G.G., and Emerson, B.C. 2008. The effect of altitude on the pattern of gene flow in the endemic Canary Island pine, Pinus canariensis. Silvae Genetica, 57(6): 357. https://doi.org/10.1515/sg-2008-0052
Schiller, G., Korol, L., Ungar, E.D., Zehavi, A., Gil, S.L., and Climent, M.J. 1999. Canary Islands pine (Pinus canariensis Chr. Sm. ex DC.). Forest Genetics, 6(4): 257–276.
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