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This distribution map has been developed by the European Commission Joint Research Centre (partly based on the EUFORGEN map) and released under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC-BY 4.0)
Caudullo, Giovanni; Welk, Erik; San-Miguel-Ayanz, Jesús (2017). Chorological maps and data for the main European woody species. figshare. Collection. https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.c.2918528
The following experts have contributed to the development of the EUFORGEN distribution maps:
Fazia Krouchi (Algeria), Hasmik Ghalachyan (Armenia), Thomas Geburek (Austria), Berthold Heinze (Austria), Rudi Litschauer (Austria), Rudolf Litschauer (Austria), Michael Mengl (Austria), Ferdinand Müller (Austria), Franz Starlinger (Austria), Valida Ali-zade (Azerbaijan), Vahid Djalal Hajiyev (Azerbaijan), Karen Cox (Belgium), Bart De Cuyper (Belgium), Olivier Desteucq (Belgium), Patrick Mertens (Belgium), Jos Van Slycken (Belgium), An Vanden Broeck (Belgium), Kristine Vander Mijnsbrugge (Belgium), Dalibor Ballian (Bosnia and Herzegovina), Alexander H. 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Genetic research on black elder is limited and neglected compared with biochemical studies on the species (Corrado et al., 2023). Existing work shows high genetic diversity, including in clonal Portuguese populations, in which variation reflects long-term farmer selection (Lima-Brito et al., 2011). Wild populations also show moderate to high diversity, especially at range edges such as Latvia and Greece (Karapatzak et al., 2022). Most genetic variation occurs within populations (up to 90%), a pattern also seen in related species (Boroduske et al., 2021). Research remains at an early stage.
Wild black alder populations show low genetic differentiation and weak correlation between genetic and geographic distance, indicating substantial gene flow and admixture (Karapatzak et al., 2022). However, some research does identify distinct local genotypes (Karapatzak et al., 2022). In the Baltic region, naturalized Latvian populations partly originate from southward wild sources, reflecting current range expansion (Boroduske et al., 2021). Populations at the north-eastern range edge have low between-population variability, with east–west clustering and distinct groupings linked to historically introduced populations (Boroduske et al., 2021).
Black alder has insect-dispersed pollen and animal-dispersed seeds. It can propagate clonally through root suckers, allowing local expansion of genetically identical shoots. Human cultivation has also aided its spread through cultivation, which normally uses clonal propagation.
The bibliographic review was conducted by James Chaplin of the EUFORGEN Secretariat in August 2025.
Black elder belongs to a small clade with Madeiran elder (Sambucus lanceolata R.Br., previously treated as Sambucus maderensis), Peruvian elder (Sambucus peruviana), and American elderberry (Sambucus canadensis), distinct from other Sambucus species (Corrado et al., 2023). Its wide ecological tolerance and broad distribution complicate taxonomy. Recent revisions propose treating American elderberry and related taxa as subspecies of an expanded black elder, influencing interpretations of genetic diversity and distribution (Corrado et al., 2023).
Black elder has been cultivated since ancient times, although cultivation declined in the twentieth century due to low commercial value and agricultural intensification (Corrado et al., 2023). Austria is currently the centre of cultivation, accounting for roughly 75% of black elder cultivation (Boroduske et al., 2021). Modern plantations typically use cuttings, creating highly clonal cultivated stocks (Corrado et al., 2023). This reduces genetic diversity compared with wild populations, which often show greater admixture and higher variation (Boroduske et al., 2021; Karapatzak et al., 2022).
Commercial cultivation focuses on a small number of cultivars, limiting the genetic base and potentially constraining future industrial uses (Boroduske et al., 2021). Selective breeding has targeted fruit quality traits such as colour, firmness, and pulp-to-seed ratio (Corrado et al., 2023). Bioactive compound concentrations differ significantly between genotypes, making genetic characterization important for health, cosmetic, and pharmacological applications when cultivating black elder (Corrado et al., 2023; Lima-Brito et al., 2011). Because seed propagation cannot reliably preserve desirable traits, breeding programmes emphasize asexual propagation and the development of improved cultivars (Karapatzak et al., 2022). Wild populations, such as those in Latvia, remain valuable genetic resources for breeding and commercial development (Boroduske et al., 2021).
The bibliographic review was conducted by James Chaplin of the EUFORGEN Secretariat in August 2025.
Cultivation relies heavily on a few clonal cultivars, narrowing the genetic base. This increases vulnerability to pests and pathogens (Boroduske et al., 2021). Germplasm collections remain limited due to the species’ scattered and historically declining cultivation (Corrado et al., 2023). Additionally, the northward expansion of wild populations includes admixture with historically introduced cultivated types, potentially diluting unique local genotypes, but also shows the species’ capacity to expand its range (Boroduske et al., 2021).
Conservation should focus on protecting wild populations at range edges, which have unique genetic diversity valuable for breeding and climate adaptation (Boroduske et al., 2021). Expanding germplasm collections and prioritizing genetically diverse wild sources, such as in the Baltic region, would strengthen breeding programmes (Boroduske et al., 2021). Integrating wild populations into cultivation and promoting broader genetic representation in commercial propagation are key steps for maintaining long-term resilience.
The bibliographic review was conducted by James Chaplin of the EUFORGEN Secretariat in August 2025.
Further reading
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References
Boroduske, A., Jekabsons, K., Riekstina, U., Muceniece, R., Rostoks, N., and Nakurte, I. 2021. Wild Sambucus nigra L. from north-east edge of the species range: A valuable germplasm with inhibitory capacity against SARS-CoV2 S-protein RBD and hACE2 binding in vitro. Industrial Crops and Products, 165: 113438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2021.113438
Corrado, G., Basile, B., Mataffo, A., Yousefi, S., Salami, S.A., Perrone, A., and Martinelli, F. 2023. Cultivation, phytochemistry, health claims, and genetic diversity of Sambucus nigra, a versatile plant with many beneficial properties. Horticulturae, 9(4): 488. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae9040488
Karapatzak, E., Dichala, O., Ganopoulos, I., Karydas, A., Papanastasi, K., Kyrkas, D., Yfanti, P., Nikisianis, N., Fotakis, D., Patakioutas, G., and Maloupa, E. 2022. Molecular authentication, propagation trials and field establishment of Greek native genotypes of Sambucus nigra L. (Caprifoliaceae): Setting the basis for domestication and sustainable utilization. Agronomy, 12(1): 114. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12010114
Lima-Brito, J., Castro, L., Coutinho, J., Morais, F., Gomes, L., Guedes-Pinto, H., and Carvalho, A. 2011. Genetic variability in Sambucus nigra L. clones: a preliminary molecular approach. Journal of Genetics, 90: e47–e52. https://www.ias.ac.in/article/fulltext/jgen/090/online/e0047-e0052
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